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V i c t o r i a n L i t e r a t u r e R e a l i s m C h a r l e s D i c k e n s W i l l i a m M a k e p e a c e T h a c k e r a y B r o n t e S i s t e r s A l f e r d , L o r d T e n n y s o n R o b e r t B r o w n i n g D r a m a t i c M o n o l o g u e O s c a r W i l d e J o h n G a l s w o r t h y T h o m a s H a r d y P a r t V I I I . M o d e r n P e r i o d M o d e r n i s m G e o r g e B e r n a r d S h a w W i l l i a m B u t l e r Y e a t s V i r g i n i a W o o l f J a m e s J o y c e D . H . L a w r e n c e T . S . E l i o t J o s e p h C o n r a d P a r t I X T h e L i t e r a t u r e o f W e l f a r e C o u n t r y T h e A n g r y Y o u n g M e n T h e T h e a t r e o f A b s u r d i t y S a m u e l B e c k e t t G e o r g e O r w e l l D o r i s L e s s i n g E . M . F o r s t e r V . S . N i p a u l T e d H u g h e s A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e P a r t I . C o l o n i a l A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e ( E a r l y A m e r i c a t o 1 7 5 0 ) A m e r i c a n P u r i t a n i s m C o l o n i a l W r i t e r s a n d t h e i r W r i t i n g F e a t u r e s P a r t I I . L i t e r a t u r e o f R e a s o n a n d R e v o l u t i o n ( 1 7 5 0 - 1 8 0 0 ) B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n T h o m a s P a i n e T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n P a r t I I I . N a t i v e G r o u n d s ( 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 4 0 ) W a s h i n g t o n I r v i n g J a m e s F e n i m o r e C o o p e r W i l l i a m C u l l e n B r y a n t E d g a r A l l a n P o e P a r t I V . N e w E n g l a n d R e n a i s s a n c e ( 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 5 5 ) & C o n f l i c t a n d C e l e b r a t i o n ( 1 8 5 5 - 1 8 8 0 ) R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n H e n r y D a v i d T h o r e a u T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e H e r m a n M e l v i l l e H e n r y W a d s w o r t h L o n g f e l l o w W a l t W h i m a n E m i l y D i c k i n s o n M a r k T w a i n P a r t V . R e g i o n a l i s m a n d R e a l i s m ( 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 1 0 ) B r e t H a r t e J a c k L o n d o n S t e p h e n C r a n e H e n r y J a m e s T h e o d o r e D r e i s e r P a r t V I . N e w D i r e c t i o n s ( 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 3 0 ) E z r a P o u n d W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s C a r l S a n d b u r g L a n s t o n H u g h e s E . E . C u m m i n g s W a l l a c e S t e v e n s R o b e r t F r o s t E r n e s t H e m i n g w a y F . S . F i t z g e r a l d P a r t V I I . M i d c e n t u r y V o i c e s ( 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 6 0 ) W . H . A u d e n J o h n S t e i n b e c k W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r J a c k K e r o u a c A l l a n G i n s b e r g T h e B e a t G e n e r a t i o n H e n r y M i l l e r E u g e n e O N e i l l T e n e s s e e W i l l i a m s J o s e p h H e l l e r B l a c k h u m o r P a r t V I I I . I n O u r T i m e ( S i n c e 1 9 6 0 ) J a m e s W r i g h t R o b e r t B l y J o h n U p d i k e S a u l B e l l o w A r t h u r M i l l e r nf愴 奻[8^茓 C h a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c s . 1 . 1 W h y s t u d y l a n g u a g e ? 1 . 2 W h a t i s l a n g u a g e ? 1 . 3 D e s i g n f e a t u r e s o f l a n g u a g e 1 . 4 O r i g i n o f l a n g u a g e 1 . 5 F u n c t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e 1 . 6 W h a t i s l i n g u i s t i c s ? 1 . 7 M a i n b r a n c h e s o f l i n g u i s t i c s 1 . 8 M a c r o l i n g u i s t i c s 1 . 9 I m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n s i n l i n g u i s t i c s C h a p t e r 2 S p e e c h S o u n d s 2 . 1 H o w s p e e c h s o u n d s a r e m a d e ? 2 . 2 C o n s o n a n t s a n d v o w e l s 2 . 3 F r o m p h o n e t i c s t o p h o n o l o g y 2 . 4 P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , p h o n o l o g i c a l r u l e s a n d d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s 2 . 5 S u p r a s e g m e n t a l s C h a p t e r 3 L e x i c o n 3 . 1 W h a t i s w o r d ? 3 . 2 T h e f o r m a t i o n o f w o r d 3 . 3 L e x i c a l c h a n g e C h a p t e r 4 F r o m W o r d t o T e x t 4 . 1 S y n t a c t i c r e l a t i o n s 4 . 2 G r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s 4 . 3 S y n t a c t i c f u n c t i o n 4 . 4 C a t e g o r y 4 . 5 P h r a s e , c l a u s e a n d s e n t e n c e 4 . 6 R e c u r s i v e n e s s 4 . 7 B e y o n d t h e s e n t e n c e C h a p t e r 5 M e a n i n g 5 . 1 M e a n i n g s o f " m e a n i n g " 5 . 2 T h e r e f e r e n t i a l t h e o r y 5 . 3 S e n s e r e l a t i o n s 5 . 4 C o m p o n e n t i a l a n a l y s i s 5 . 5 S e n t e n c e m e a n i n g C h a p t e r 6 L a n g u a g e a n d C o g n i t i o n 6 . 1 W h a t i s c o g n i t i o n ? 6 . 2 W h a t i s p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s ? 6 . 3 W h a t i s c o g n i t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s ? C h a p t e r 7 L a n g u a g e , C u l t u r e , a n d S o c i e t y 7 . 1 L a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e 7 . 2 L a n g u a g e a n d s o c i e t y 7 . 3 C r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . . C h a p t e r 8 L a n g u a g e i n U s e 8 . 1 S p e e c h a c t t h e o r y 8 . 2 T h e t h e o r y o f c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t u r e 8 . 3 P o s t - g r i c e a n d e v e l o p m e n t s C h a p t e r 9 L a n g u a g e a n d L i t e r a t u r e 9 . 1 S o m e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e 9 . 2 T h e l a n g u a g e i n p o e t r y 9 . 3 T h e l a n g u a g e i n f i c t i o n 9 . 4 T h e l a n g u a g e i n d r a m a 9 . 5 T h e c o g n i t i v e a p p r o a c h t o l i t e r a t u r e C h a p t e r 1 0 L a n g u a g e a n d C o m p u t e r 1 0 . 1 C o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g 1 0 . 2 M a c h i n e t r a n s l a t i o n 1 0 . 3 C o r p u s l i n g u i s t i c s 1 0 . 4 C o m p u t e r m e d i a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n C h a p t e r 1 1 L i n g u i s t i c s a n d F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g 1 1 . 1 T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l i n g u i s t i c s a n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g 1 1 . 2 L i n g u i s t i c s a n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g 1 1 . 3 L i n g u i s t i c s a n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g 1 1 . 4 L i n g u i s t i c s a n d s y l l a b u s d e s i g n 1 1 . 5 C o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s a n d e r r o r a n a l y s i s 1 1 . 6 C o r p u s l i n g u i s t i c s a n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g C h a p t e r 1 2 T h e o r i e s a n d S c h o o l s o f M o d e r n L i n g u i s t i c s 1 2 . 1 T h e P r a g u e s c h o o l 1 2 . 2 T h e L o n d o n s c h o o l 1 2 . 3 A m e r i c a n s t r u c t u r a l i s m 1 2 . 4 T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l - g e n e r a t i v e g r a m m a r 1 2 . 5 R e v i s i o n i s t s o r r e b e l s ? 駛Il扤褘 Il駛扤褘剉鶺@x鍂茓0駛Il韹 妱v鶺,g膲媉蔛褘筫誰孴褘b鏬 齹9hnc噀,g剉槝Pg0韹SOyr乢蹚L垪_SO0郷瀃0恴槃v褘0 亯Blf[ u宑醕鶺,g剉Il駛韹 0噀Syr乢0鶺,g剉Il駛韹鵞詋筫誰 宑醕\魦0ce噀I{噀f[SO翀蔛vQ諲SO翀剉噀SOyr乢 N(W奲醕烻韹aIN剉鶺@x N(W蛬Gl0蛬膥0韜韹0錝P[0祂=N莧鄗I{B\b椸_瀃恴?W(W褘韹-N峇皊烻韹0 >V 歏 睼 赩 餠 W FW dW W 榃 禬 蠾 頦 X *X HX hX X 碭 鎄 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 勨7$ 8$ H$ WD `勨 鎄 黊 Y 2Y RY xY ╕ 赮 Z Z 2Z LZ fZ 刏 耑 襔 騔 *[ H[ t[ 擺 篬 襕 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 勨7$ 8$ H$ WD `勨 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 襕 鬧 \ @\ T\ |\ 腬 躙 鶿 ] .] 哴 甝 郵 ⺌ ^ 6^ R^ l^ & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 勨7$ 8$ H$ WD `勨 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 l^ 俕 刕 琟 &_ N_ ` >` X` z` 腵 鑐 a @a & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 & F 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 勨7$ 8$ H$ WD `勨 勨1$G$ WD `勨 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 @a `a b 0b Xb |b 腷 鷅 c 2c Hc 燾 禼 蝐 阠 d $d nd & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 勨7$ 8$ H$ WD `勨 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 nd 刣 磀 衐 頳 e *e De fe 坋 豦 餰 f 0f Jf hf 恌 猣 萬 靎 g g jg & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 勨7$ 8$ H$ WD `勨 & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 jg 刧 歡 瞘 蔳 鎔 鑗 鷊 黦 Nh Pj 俲 鴎 l zl 躭 Zn 俷 |o 纎 $ 勦1$WD `勦a$ $ 勥1$VD ^勥a$ $ 勨1$WD `勨a$ 勨1$G$ WD `勨 G$ H$ & F , 勦7$ 8$ H$ WD ^ `勦 鎔 鑗 鷊 Nh Pj 俲 鴎 l 躭 Zn 俷 |o 纎 xp 蝡 ~q 磓 |r 聄 &t jt pu 躸 黽 jx 攜 杫 爕 襷 詚 込 鄗 鈠 鎧 鑪 靭 顉 騴 魖 鷝 鼁 镙探探探探探探探探探探探探★寛寛寛寛 h; j h; Uh5 CJ OJ QJ ^J o(h; CJ OJ QJ ^J o( h; 5丆J OJ QJ ^J o( h; CJ KH OJ QJ ^J o( h; 5丆J KH OJ QJ ^J o( #h; 5丆J KH OJ QJ \乛J o( h; 5丆J OJ QJ \乛J o( )纎 xp 蝡 ~q 磓 |r 聄 &t jt pu 躸 黽 jx 攜 杫 爕 z 鄗 鋤 鎧 陑 靭 饅 gd ` 勦WD `勦 勨WD `勨 $ G$ H$ a$ $ 勨1$WD `勨a$ $ 勥1$VD ^勥a$ 饅 騴 鰖 鴝 鷝 鼁 勦WD `勦 gd ` 0 1?2P 皞. 捌A!"#悹$悹% 癝班 愋 $$If !v h5 5 5 5#v #v #v #v:V 斘? , 5 5 5 5/ al $$If !v h5 5 5 5#v #v #v #v:V 4斘? ++, 5 5 5 5/ / al f4 $$If !v h5 5 5 5#v #v #v #v:V 4斘? ++, 5 5 5 5/ / al f4 $$If !v h5 5 5 5#v #v #v #v:V 4斘? ++, 5 5 5 5/ / al f4 j 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 0 @ P ` p 6 8 8 8 0 @ P ` p 0 @ P ` p 0 @ P ` p 0 @ P ` p 0 @ P ` p 0 @ P ` p 8 X V ~ OJ PJ QJ _HmH nHsH tH J `? 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